From Aquinas to Enlightenment: Everything to Know About Medieval Philosophy

Medieval philosophy is often seen as a time of backwardness and superstition, sandwiched between the classical wisdom of the Greeks and the modern enlightenment of the 17th century. But this view is a gross oversimplification. 

In reality, the medieval period (roughly from the 5th to the 15th century) saw some of the most innovative and influential thinking in the history of philosophy. 

From the debates over the nature of God and the universe, to the role of reason and faith in human knowledge, to the exploration of ethics and political philosophy, medieval thinkers tackled some of the biggest questions of human existence. Their ideas would not only shape the course of Western philosophy, but also influence art, literature, and politics for centuries to come. 

Here, we’ll have a deep look. at what medieval philosophy is all about, who its major figures were, and why it’s still worth studying today.

What is Medieval Philosophy?

Medieval philosophy is a broad term used to describe the philosophical thought that emerged during the medieval period, roughly spanning from the 5th to the 15th century (1).

It was a time of great intellectual and cultural ferment, painted by significant historical events, such as the fall of the Roman Empire, the rise of Christianity, and the encounter with Islamic philosophy.

Medieval philosophy is characterized by a distinctive blend of theology, metaphysics, and epistemology.

It was primarily concerned with the nature of God, the universe, and human nature, as well as with questions of ethics, politics, and the good life. Medieval philosophers sought to reconcile the teachings of the Bible with the philosophical ideas of the ancient Greeks, particularly Plato and Aristotle.

Theological Focus

One of the most distinctive features of medieval philosophy is its theological focus. Medieval philosophers were deeply concerned with questions about the nature of God, the relationship between God and the universe, and the role of religion in human life. 

They sought to understand the divine nature and to reconcile the teachings of the Bible with the insights of reason.

Medieval philosophy is often characterized as a “philosophy of the Christian religion,” as it emerged in a culture dominated by the Christian church. 

However, medieval philosophers also engaged with the ideas of other religious traditions, such as Islam and Judaism. This led to a rich and diverse philosophical tradition that was marked by a wide range of theological perspectives.

Integration of Faith and Reason

Another defining feature of medieval philosophy is its integration of faith and reason. Medieval philosophers believed that faith and reason were not mutually exclusive, but could work together to reveal the nature of God and the universe. 

They believed that reason could help to clarify and deepen religious belief, while faith could provide guidance and direction for philosophical inquiry.

This integration of faith and reason is particularly evident in the works of medieval scholastics, a group of philosophers who developed a systematic approach to theology and philosophy. 

Scholasticism emphasized the use of reason to understand theological truths, and it was characterized by a rigorous method of inquiry that involved careful analysis and argumentation.

Scholasticism

Scholasticism was a dominant philosophical approach in the medieval period. It was characterized by a systematic approach to theology and philosophy, as well as a focus on logical argumentation and analysis (2).

Scholastic philosophers sought to reconcile the teachings of the Bible with the insights of reason, and they developed a rigorous method of inquiry that involved careful analysis and argumentation.

Scholasticism was particularly influential in the development of medieval philosophy, as it provided a framework for the integration of faith and reason. 

Scholastic philosophers developed a sophisticated system of thought that drew on both the Bible and the works of the ancient Greeks, particularly Aristotle.

Background of Medieval Philosophy

The medieval period was marked by several significant historical events that shaped the development of philosophy during this time. These events include the fall of the Roman Empire, the rise of Christianity, and the encounter with Islamic philosophy.

The Fall of the Roman Empire and Its Effect on Philosophy

The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century had a profound impact on European society and culture. 

The disintegration of the political and social structures of the empire led to a period of political instability, economic decline, and cultural fragmentation. This was a time of great uncertainty and upheaval, as the old order gave way to new forms of governance, social organization, and cultural expression (3).

Philosophy during this time was largely confined to the monasteries and other religious institutions that had survived the collapse of the Roman Empire. 

The focus of philosophical inquiry was primarily theological, as the Christian church sought to define its doctrines and defend its beliefs against a host of competing ideas and traditions.

The Development of Christianity and Its Impact on Philosophy

Christianity emerged as a dominant cultural force in the Mediterranean world during the first few centuries of the medieval period. 

As the church grew in power and influence, it began to shape the direction of philosophical inquiry. Christian theologians sought to reconcile the teachings of the Bible with the philosophical ideas of the ancient Greeks, particularly Plato and Aristotle. 

They also sought to answer questions about the nature of God, the universe, and human nature.

One of the most influential figures in the development of Christian philosophy was St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE). Augustine’s writings on the nature of God, free will, and human nature laid the foundations for much of medieval Christian philosophy. 

His works were particularly influential in the development of scholasticism, a philosophical approach that emphasized the use of reason to understand theological truths.

The Role of Islamic Philosophy in Medieval Philosophy

The medieval period was also marked by the encounter between European and Islamic cultures. 

The rise of Islam in the 7th century brought a new set of philosophical ideas and traditions to the Mediterranean world. Islamic philosophers, such as al-Farabi (870-950 CE) and Avicenna (980-1037 CE), developed a sophisticated system of thought that drew on both Greek and Islamic sources.

Islamic philosophy had a significant impact on the development of medieval philosophy in Europe. 

Muslim philosophers were particularly influential in the areas of metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. They also played a key role in translating and preserving the works of Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, which had a profound impact on European philosophy.

Major Medieval Philosophers

Medieval philosophy produced some of the most influential and important philosophers in the history of Western thought. 

These philosophers made significant contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and theology, and their ideas continue to shape contemporary philosophical debates. 

Here are some of the major medieval philosophers:

A. Augustine of Hippo

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD) was a Christian philosopher and theologian who had a profound influence on medieval philosophy. His most famous work, Confessions, is a spiritual autobiography that explores his journey toward God (4). 

Augustine’s philosophy was deeply influenced by Platonic and Neoplatonic ideas, as well as by the Christian scriptures.

Augustine’s philosophical views were shaped by his understanding of the nature of God and the relationship between God and the universe. 

He believed that God was the ultimate source of all truth and goodness, and that human beings could only attain knowledge of the truth through divine revelation. 

Augustine also developed influential ideas about the nature of human beings and the problem of evil.

B. Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 AD) was a Dominican friar and theologian who is widely regarded as one of the greatest philosophers in the Western tradition. He is best known for his monumental work, Summa Theologica, which synthesized the teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology.

Aquinas believed that reason and faith were both important sources of knowledge, and he sought to reconcile the insights of reason with the teachings of the Christian faith.

He developed a sophisticated metaphysical system that emphasized the distinction between substance and accident, as well as a moral philosophy that emphasized the importance of natural law.

C. John Duns Scotus

John Duns Scotus (1266-1308 AD) was a Franciscan theologian who is known for his development of the philosophical system known as Scotism. 

Scotus rejected the Aristotelianism that dominated scholastic philosophy at the time, and developed a sophisticated metaphysical system that emphasized the importance of individuality and contingency.

Scotus also made significant contributions to the study of epistemology, arguing that knowledge was not solely dependent on sense experience, but also on intuitive and intellectual forms of knowledge. 

His philosophy had a significant impact on the development of later medieval philosophy, as well as on the philosophy of the early modern period.

D. William of Ockham

William of Ockham (1285-1349 AD) was an English Franciscan friar who is best known for his development of the principle of parsimony, also known as Ockham’s Razor. This principle holds that the simplest explanation for a phenomenon is usually the best one, and has become a fundamental principle of scientific inquiry.

Ockham was also a significant figure in the development of nominalism, which holds that universals are merely names or concepts, rather than real entities. 

This idea had a significant impact on later philosophical debates about the nature of abstract concepts and the relationship between language and reality.

In essence, these four philosophers were among the most influential figures in medieval philosophy, and their ideas continue to shape philosophical discourse to this day.

Each of them made significant contributions to different aspects of philosophy and theology, and their work remains an important part of the Western philosophical tradition.

Major Themes in Medieval Philosophy

Medieval philosophy was characterized by a focus on the nature of reality, the limits of human knowledge, the pursuit of the good life, and the role of government. Here are some of the major themes in medieval philosophy:

Metaphysics and the nature of reality

One of the central concerns of medieval philosophy was the nature of reality. 

Medieval philosophers were interested in questions such as: What is the ultimate nature of the universe? What is the relationship between the physical world and the spiritual world? What is the nature of causation?

Many medieval philosophers, such as Aquinas and Scotus, were Aristotelians, and they drew heavily on Aristotelian metaphysics in their philosophical work. 

They believed that the universe was composed of substances, which had both essential and accidental properties. They also believed that causation was a fundamental aspect of the universe, and that everything that happened had a cause.

Epistemology and the limits of human knowledge

Medieval philosophers were also interested in questions of epistemology, or the theory of knowledge. They were concerned with understanding the limits of human knowledge, and the relationship between faith and reason.

Many medieval philosophers, such as Augustine and Aquinas, believed that human beings could only attain knowledge of the truth through divine revelation. 

Others, such as Ockham, emphasized the role of reason in attaining knowledge. They believed that human reason was capable of uncovering certain truths about the universe, but that it was limited in its ability to understand the ultimate nature of reality.

Ethics and the pursuit of the good life

Another central concern of medieval philosophy was ethics, or the study of the nature of the good life. 

Medieval philosophers were interested in questions such as: What is the nature of the good life? What is the relationship between virtue and happiness? How should we live our lives in order to achieve happiness?

Many medieval philosophers, such as Aquinas, believed that the ultimate goal of human life was to achieve union with God. 

They believed that this could be accomplished through a life of virtue, in which individuals lived in accordance with the natural law and the teachings of the Christian faith.

Political philosophy and the role of government

Medieval philosophers were also interested in questions of political philosophy, or the study of the nature of government and political power. 

They were concerned with understanding the relationship between the individual and the state, and the limits of governmental authority.

Many medieval philosophers, such as Aquinas, believed in the importance of natural law in determining the proper role of government. 

They believed that government should be guided by moral principles, and that its authority was limited by the natural law. 

Other philosophers, such as Ockham, emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms, and argued for the importance of limiting governmental authority.

 Legacy of Medieval Philosophy

The legacy of medieval philosophy is vast and continues to influence philosophical thought to this day. From the development of natural law theory to the rise of scholasticism, medieval philosophy played a significant role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the Western world.

I. Natural Law Theory

One of the most significant contributions of medieval philosophy was the development of natural law theory (5). 

Medieval philosophers believed that there was a universal, objective moral law that governed human behavior. This natural law was thought to be accessible to human reason, and could be discovered through careful observation of the natural world.

The concept of natural law was central to the development of Western legal and political thought, and continues to be influential today. 

Natural law theory has been used to argue for everything from individual rights to the protection of the environment, and its impact on modern legal and political theory cannot be overstated.

II. Scholasticism

Another important legacy of medieval philosophy is the rise of scholasticism. 

Scholasticism was a philosophical movement that developed in the Middle Ages and emphasized the use of reason to understand the natural world and to uncover the truth about God.

Scholasticism was characterized by a rigorous and systematic approach to philosophy, and its methods and techniques continue to influence philosophical inquiry today. 

The emphasis on logical argumentation, careful analysis, and the use of reason to uncover truth are all hallmarks of scholasticism, and its legacy can be seen in everything from modern analytic philosophy to contemporary debates about the nature of truth and knowledge.

III. Religious Thought

Medieval philosophy was deeply influenced by religious thought, and the legacy of this influence can be seen in the continued importance of religion in contemporary philosophical debates. 

Many medieval philosophers, such as Augustine and Aquinas, were deeply committed to their faith, and sought to use philosophy to better understand the nature of God and the relationship between God and the natural world.

The legacy of medieval religious thought can be seen in contemporary debates about the existence of God, the nature of faith, and the role of religion in contemporary society. 

Whether one is a believer or not, the influence of medieval religious thought on the Western intellectual tradition is undeniable.

IV. Influence on the Arts

Finally, in addition to its impact on philosophy, the legacy of medieval philosophy can also be seen in the arts. 

Medieval philosophy played a significant role in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of the Middle Ages, and its influence can be seen in the literature, music, and art of the period.

Literature

Medieval literature, particularly the works of Dante Alighieri, is deeply influenced by medieval philosophy. 

Dante’s Divine Comedy, for example, is structured around the medieval concept of the Great Chain of Being, which placed all beings in a hierarchical order, with God at the top and the lowest creatures at the bottom. 

Dante’s work also draws heavily on Aristotelian philosophy, particularly in its treatment of ethics and virtue.

Other medieval writers, such as Chaucer and Boccaccio, also drew on medieval philosophy in their work. 

Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, for example, explores issues such as the nature of love, the relationship between the individual and the state, and the role of religion in society.

Music

Medieval music was also influenced by medieval philosophy, particularly in its use of symbolism and allegory. 

Many medieval musical compositions were designed to express theological or philosophical ideas, and often included references to biblical or mythological themes.

The use of Gregorian chant, a form of liturgical music that originated in the medieval period, also reflects the influence of medieval philosophy. 

Gregorian chant is characterized by its simplicity and clarity, reflecting the medieval belief that music should be a reflection of the divine order of the universe.

Art

Medieval art is also deeply influenced by medieval philosophy, particularly in its use of religious and allegorical themes. 

Medieval art often depicted scenes from the Bible or classical mythology, and was designed to convey moral and religious messages to the viewer.

One of the most significant examples of medieval art influenced by philosophy is the Gothic cathedral. 

Gothic cathedrals were designed to reflect the medieval belief in the beauty and order of the universe, and often featured intricate architectural details and sculptures designed to express theological or philosophical ideas.

How medieval Philosophy Influenced Renaissance and Enlightenment Philosophers

Medieval philosophy had a significant impact on the development of Renaissance and Enlightenment thought, particularly in the areas of metaphysics and epistemology.

Metaphysics

One of the most significant ways in which medieval philosophy influenced Renaissance and Enlightenment thought was in the area of metaphysics. 

Renaissance philosophers, such as Giordano Bruno and Marsilio Ficino, were deeply influenced by the Neoplatonic philosophy of the medieval thinker Plotinus, which emphasized the idea of the One, a transcendent principle that underlies all reality.

Enlightenment philosophers, such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, were also influenced by medieval metaphysics, particularly the concept of substance, which was central to the metaphysics of the medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas.

Epistemology

Medieval philosophy also had a significant influence on the development of epistemology, particularly the medieval concept of the universals, which were thought to be the abstract concepts or properties that underlie individual objects.

Renaissance philosophers, such as Francesco Patrizi and Pierre Gassendi, were deeply interested in the problem of universals, and sought to reconcile the medieval concept with the emerging scientific worldview of the Renaissance.

Enlightenment philosophers, such as John Locke and Immanuel Kant, were also influenced by medieval epistemology, particularly in their attempts to understand the nature of knowledge and the limits of human understanding.

Ideally, the legacy of medieval philosophy had a profound impact on the development of Renaissance and Enlightenment thought, shaping the way that philosophers approached metaphysical and epistemological questions, and laying the groundwork for the emergence of modern philosophy.

How Medieval Philosophy Has Continued Relevance in Contemporary Philosophy

Despite being over 500 years old, medieval philosophy continues to be relevant in contemporary philosophical discourse, particularly in the areas of metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.

A. Metaphysics

Medieval metaphysics continues to be a topic of interest in contemporary philosophy, particularly in its exploration of the nature of reality and the existence of God. 

The work of medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham continues to inform contemporary debates in metaphysics, particularly in the areas of substance, causation, and modality.

B. Epistemology

Medieval epistemology also continues to be a topic of interest in contemporary philosophy, particularly in its exploration of the nature of knowledge and the limits of human understanding. 

The work of medieval philosophers such as John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham continues to inform contemporary debates in epistemology, particularly in the areas of skepticism, knowledge, and justification.

C. Ethics

Medieval ethics has also remained relevant in contemporary philosophical discourse, particularly in its exploration of the nature of the good life and the development of virtue. 

The work of medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Augustine of Hippo continues to inform contemporary debates in ethics, particularly in the areas of moral theory, virtue ethics, and natural law theory.

D. Philosophy of Religion

Finally, medieval philosophy also remains relevant in contemporary debates on the philosophy of religion, particularly in its exploration of the relationship between faith and reason, the existence of God, and the problem of evil.

The work of medieval theologians such as Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas continues to inform contemporary debates in the philosophy of religion, particularly in the areas of natural theology and theodicy.

In the grand scheme of things, the legacy of medieval philosophy continues to be felt in contemporary philosophical discourse, with its insights and ideas continuing to inform and shape the way that contemporary philosophers approach fundamental questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, ethics, and religion.